The Sacred Valley, located in Peru, was the heart of the Inca Empire. Formed by the Urubamba River, it generally runs east to west from Pisac to Ollantaytambo. Best known for its importance in growing maize and sitting high in the Andes Mountains, the valley ranges approximately 7,000 to 10,000 feet above sea level. However, its highest peaks soar over 19,000 ft (Veronica- 19,334 ft and Sahuasiray- 19,088ft). Due to its location, the Sacred Valley has two seasons. The rainy season, November-April, has a higher chance of rain including periods of heaver rain. However, with the clouds in place, the temperatures do not swing as drastically from day to night. The dry season, May-October, sees less rain but temperatures can vary greatly from day to night.

Sacred Valley History

I want to start by discussing the term Inca. In reality, the name of the people of the Inca empire was based on the name of the ayllu, or extended family group, that was in control. Later, upon expansion of the empire by the ruler Pachacutec, the empire became known as the Tahuantinsuyu Empire. The literal translation of this was the place of the four corners referring to the four regions of the empire:

• Collasuyu- far south
• Cuntisuyu- southwest
• Chinchaysuyu- northern quarter
• Antisuyu- eastern slopes of the Andes

The term Inca actually refers to the supreme leader of the empire. Thought to have descended from the sun, the Sapa Inca was the supreme leader. The title was typically passed down through birth, from father to son or among brothers. However, since most of us were taught that the the term Inca refers to the citizens of the empire, that is how I will use it.

Gaining Control of the Sacred Valley

The Inca gained control of the Sacred Valley approximately 1100-1200 AD through diplomacy or conquest. Its fertile soil was key to supporting the empire through its growing expansion over the next few hundred years. The valley’s lower elevation increased the temperature compared to the surrounding areas. This fact was vital in growing maize, an important staple crop for the Inca. The valley mirrors the Milky Way Galaxy which further strengthened the idea that the Gods placed the Inca in this area.

Before the Inca conquered it, the Sacred Valley was home to other civilizations. The Chanapata settled this area as early as 800 BC due to the fertile soil of the valley. The Qotacalla settled the Sacred Valley from approximately 500-900 AD. Before the Inca expansion drove them out, the Killke took over the area until well into the 1400’s. At its height, the Inca empire extended from Columbia to Chile (3,500 miles) which exceeded the expansion of the Roman Empire!

Notable Leaders

Though many “Incas” controlled the empire during its reign, there were a few notable rulers to highlight. The first Sapa Inca Manco Capac defeated the Sahuares, Huallas, and the Alchahuisas to gain control of the area. He settled in Cusco (meaning navel) which became the heart of the empire around 1200 AD. Manco Capac was believed to be the son of Inti (Sun God) and Mama Killa (Moon Goddess). He, along with his son, defended the area against attacks from stronger neighboring tribes. The great expansion of the Empire happened under the Inca Pachacutec (mid 1400’s). Under his rule, the empire flourished. This led to the largest empire of the Americas prior to European expansion to the New World. Finally, a civil war (1533) between two brothers, Huascar and Atahualpa, led to the demise of the empire by weakening it and making it ripe for Spanish conquest.

Inca Rulers Timeline

As stated above, many leaders came about during the reign of the Inca. Below is a complete list of Inca leaders, along with a few details of what they were best known for (dates are approximate):

• Manco Capac- (1200-1230) First Inca, settled Cusco, son of the Gods
• Sinchi Roca- (1230-1260) Manco’s son, took the first census of the empire. Brought large quantities of fertile soil to the area
• Lloque Yupanqui- (1260-1290) Sinchi’s son, established a public market, kept good relations with allies but did not expand the empire
• Mayta Capac- (1290-1320) 4th son of Lloque, great warrior expanded empire outside of Cusco
• Capac Yupanqui- (1320-1350) Mayta’s son, fierce warrior, first to expand territory outside of the Sacred Valley, improved city infrastructure
• Inca Roca- (1350-1380) Capac’s son, improved irrigation, established Yachaywasi, a school for nobles, kept good relations with neighboring tribes
• Yahuar Huaca- (1380-1410) abducted as a child, in a dispute over who should rule next. He and his sons were assassinated
• Viracocha- (1410-1438) appointed by elders after receiving a vision from the Gods. He was warlike and said to be the first to rule over those he conquered

Major Expansion of the Empire

• Pachacutec- (1438-1471) not named the heir but given the title after defending Cusco from the Chanka. Major expansion of the empire, considered greatest Sapa Inca
• Tupac Inca Yupanqui- (1471-1493) ruled along with his father Pachacutec. He defeated Chimu expanding the empire into Ecuador and Columbia, rebuilt Quito, noble Inca accountant. Thought, but not confirmed, to have explored islands in the Pacific Ocean
• Huayna Capac- (1493-1527) Tupac’s son, expanded empire south into Chile and Argentina, built astronomical observatories in Ecuador

Civil War Breaks Out Among Huascar and Atahualpa

• Huascar Inca- (1527-1532) assumed throne in Cusco and was backed by the nobility. He attacked his brother who was seen as a more capable warrior and who controlled Quito
• Atahualpa- (1532-1533) controlled Quito prior to 1532, but was only appointed as Inca after the Spanish captured him. He was meant to be used by the Spanish to take over the empire
• Huallpa Tupac- (1533) younger brother to Huascar and Atahualpa. Appointed by conquistadors as a puppet ruler to allow Spanish to rob the empire, quickly assassinated

Formation of the Neo-Inca State

• Manco Inca- (1533-1537-Spanish puppet – 1537-1544 head of Neo-Inca State) another younger brother to Huascar and Atahualpa. Placed by the Spanish as a puppet ruler but due to poor treatment defected. He successfully defended Ollantaytambo against the Spanish before retreating to the jungles before reinforcements arrived forming the Neo-Inca State
• Paullu Inca- (1537-1549) half brother to the four previous Incas, final Spanish puppet of the Inca Empire
• Sayri Tupac- (1544-1563) Manco’s son, appointed at 5 years old and helped by advisors to rule Neo-Inca State. He renounced his claim and accepted baptism
• Titu Cusi Yupanqui- (1563-1571) Sayri’s half brother. He defended Neo-Inca State from the Spanish until his baptism into the Roman Catholic Church. He narrated the Spanish conquest of the Inca to a Spanish missionary
• Tupac Amaru- (1571-1572) Manco’s son, last Sapa Inca of the Neo-Inca State. The Spanish captured him in Vilcabamba and later executed him.

Society and Economy of the Sacred Valley

In the Sacred Valley, the social dynamic was based on the ayllu. While valued, less importance was placed on family than on clan groups linked by common ancestors. These ayllus worked and lived together to support a common purpose.

When they married, adult males were given a piece of land to farm. The size of the gift depended mainly on how fertile the land was. His land increased in size with the birth of every child he fathered. Viewed as additional laborers for the Sapa Inca, child birth was celebrated in Incan society. The man remained the head of his land until he reached the age of 50.

Sacred Valley Agriculture

The men used a simple tool called a chaki taclla (wooden hoe) to plow the steep slopes of the Andes. The key to successful agriculture in the mountains was based on two aspects. First, creating terraces to grow crops. Second, being able to channel water without eroding ground down to the valley. The Inca were experts in creating multi-layered terraces. These allowed the heavy rains of the rainy season to drain successfully to the valley below without destroying the terrace. Despite the high elevations, Inca farmers grew a variety of crops. These included maize, potatoes (over 300 varieties!) quinoa, beans, squash, peppers, and coca. They used their two most popular types of crops to create chúno (freeze-dried potato snack) and chicha (maize-beer), which are still popular today!

Sacred Valley Livestock

Along with crops, Alpacas were also raised high in the Andes. Although alpaca meat was prized in Incan society, these animals were mainly raised for their wool. Alpaca wool has several benefits over sheep’s wool. It is lightweight but still warmer than sheep’s wool. It’s naturally water resistant which is key for those living high in the Andes during rainy season. Hypoallergenic, it is also perfect for those with sensitive skin. Finally, the fibers are also naturally fire-resistant. With so many excellent qualities, it’s easy to see why they preferred their protein from guinnea pigs, ducks, and fish.

Textiles

Although agriculture was key in Inca society, there were other ways to make a living. Artisans also played a key role in society. Weavers were very important in Incan society. Seen as a statement of rank, woven cloth was an important commodity. Those who could afford fine clothes were generally those in a higher class. Since the economy was based on the barter system, cloth was also valued as a medium of exchange. Metal smiths also held important roles in society.

Metalworking

Known for their ability to create fantastic works of art with gold, silver, and other precious metals, Incas who could work with metal saw their art displayed throughout the cities. Sadly, most of that artwork was systematically melted down and sent back to Spain. Finally, potters also served a role in society. While the use of ceramics in ancient times was mainly utilitarian as opposed to decorative, those works were still important and a potters skill was put to good use.

Division of Goods and Services

Regardless of how you made your living, your goods were split three ways. First, you kept some for yourself and your ayllu. A second portion went to the priests to distribute among the townspeople. The final portion went to the state to be distributed among the empire. Paid in either food, cloth, or labor, all citizens paid a tax called a mit’a. The food or cloth was used to feed or clothe citizens of the empire. Labor was used to build roads, canals, walls, or any other projects that were needed in the formation of the Incan cities. This process helped all those in society have a productive role in the expansion of the empire.

Spanish Arrival

The timing of the Spanish arrival could not have been any worse for the Inca Empire. The empire was in the middle of a civil war between two brothers seeking power over each other. The size of the empire led to its citizens backing different leaders. Huascar who controlled Cusco and the south, and Atahualpa who controlled Quito and the north. There was a division among the people due to infighting, heavy taxation, and diseases spreading throughout the empire.

Captain Francisco Pizarro made some initial expeditions into the northern reaches of the Inca territory (present day Columbia/Ecuador) in the mid 1520’s. He was seeking the lost city of gold, El Dorado. He was desperate to find and capture for Spain the cities with streets paved in gold that he’d heard about. His first two attempts failed due to the harsh environment he explored in and he set sail back to Spain to request funds for a third exploration.

An Empire in Decline

After convincing the king and queen to fund the exploration, Pizarro again landed in the northern reaches of the empire. In 1532, he arrived with approximately 200 soldiers of which about a third were on horseback. Upon arrival, he noticed the Inca numbers were decimated due to war and disease. The native cultures, not immune to European diseases, had vast numbers wiped out from smallpox mostly.

Using the current state of the empire, Pizarro managed to get the Inca to rise up against Atahualpa. He set a trap that allowed him to kill Atahualpa’s nobles and capture the leader. Begging for his life, Atahualpa promised to give Pizarro a room full of gold and two of silver. He also pledged to keep his followers from resisting the Spanish. This one act single handedly ended the empire. The Sapa Inca was seen as a God. Although they far outnumbered the Spanish, no one questioned the order to not resist.

Spanish Treachery

Even though Atahualpa kept his word and delivered the gold and silver to Pizarro, those loyal to him killed his brother a year later. They suspected that Huascar was loyal to the Spanish and sought to overthrow Atahualpa. The Spanish, using this rebellion as an excuse, accused Atahualpa of high treason and sentenced him to death. After killing Atahualpa, the Spanish placed a number of puppet Incas in command. These puppets allowed them to continue to rob the empire of its riches. Fighting among the Spanish and Inca remained for decades to come. However, the Sacred Valley started to lose some of importance when Pizarro moved the capital to Lima in 1535. Pizarro needed to rule from an area that was close to the coast, which allowed him to easily send the treasures of the empire back to Spain.

Sacred Valley Today

As it has been in its long history, the Sacred Valley remains a very important agricultural area. Many crops grown in this area help feed the inhabitants of the valley, Peru, and the rest of the world. The fertile soil is still key and the terraces created by the ancient civilization are still in use today.

However, the main draw to the Sacred Valley today is tourism. Millions of visitors a year come to see the ancient ruins of the Inca Empire. This influx of tourists led to the Peruvian government taking action and placing a daily limit on the amount of visitors allowed to visit Machu Picchu and the Inca Trail. While Machu Picchu is probably top on everyone’s list, there are hundreds of ruins to see in the area. This makes the Sacred Valley worth an extended trip for anyone interested in its history and culture. The Inca were the most expansive empire in the Americas. They built a large network of roads, had a deep understanding of astronomy, and were obviously much more than an agricultural society. It’s important to keep these ruins around for future generations to visit and gain an understanding of this amazing culture!

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